During the Neolithic era (from about 7000 BC) and the time of Indo-European migrations (from 4000 BC). Europe saw massive migrations from the east and southeast, which also brought in agriculture, new technologies, and Indo-European languages. , mainly through the regions of the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea region.
Some of the most famous civilizations of late prehistoric Europe were the Minoan and Mycenaean, which flourished in the Bronze Age before they collapsed in a short span of time around 1200 BC.
The period known as classical antiquity began with the rise of the city-states of ancient Greece. After the final containment of the Persian offensive in Europe during the Greco-Persian wars in the 5th century BC, Greek influence reached its climax under the vast empire of Alexander the Great, spreading across Asia, Africa and other parts of Europe. Thracians and their estates and culture reigned in Southeast Europe for a long time. The Roman Empire began to rule over everything. By AD 300, the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern Empires. During the 4th and 5th years, the Germanic peoples of Northern Europe, suppressed by the Huns, grew in strength and led repeated attacks, which resulted in the fall of the registration of the Roman Empire. The collapse of the year AD traditionally marks the end of the Classical period and the beginning of the Middle Ages.
In Eastern Europe, the rise and fall of the Mongol Empire prevailed in the Middle Ages. Led by Genghis Khan, the Mongols were a group of steppe nomads who founded a decentralized empire that at its peak stretched from China in the east to the Black and Baltic Sea in Europe. ... As the Mongol power weakened by the late Middle Ages, the Grand Duchy of Moscow became the strongest of the military Russian principalities and republics and would turn into the Russian kingdom. in 1547. The later Middle Ages were a period of turmoil in Europe. The epidemic known as Death, Black and its associated famine caused a demographic catastrophe in Europe as the population plummeted. Dynastic struggles and wars of conquest kept many European states at war for most of the period. In Scandinavia, the Kalmar Alliance dominated the political landscape, while England fought Scotland in the Scottish Wars of Independence and France in the Hundred Years War. In Central Europe, Rzeczpospolita developed into a large territorial empire, and the Holy Roman Empire, which was an elective monarchy, came to dominate for centuries the House of Habsburgs. Russia continued to expand south and east into the former Mongol lands. In the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire took over Byzantine lands, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, which historians mark as the end of the Middle Ages.
Starting in the 14th century in Florence and then spreading throughout Europe, the Renaissance challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. The rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman lore has had a tremendous liberating influence on intellectuals. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation under the German Martin Luther challenged papal authority. Henry VIII seized control of the English church and its lands. European religious wars were fought between German and Spanish rulers. The Reconquista put an end to Muslim rule in Iberia. By the 1490s, a series of oceanic explorations marked an era of discovery, establishing direct links with Africa, America, and Asia. Religious wars continued in Europe until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. The Spanish crown retained its hegemony in Europe and was the leading power on the continent until the signing of the Treaty of Pyrenees, which ended the conflict between Spain and France that began during the Thirty Years War. Between 1610 and 1700, Europe experienced an unprecedented series of wars and political revolutions.
... In Western Europe, the Germanic peoples became more powerful on the remnants of the former Western state. The Roman Empire also founded its own kingdoms and empires. Of all the Germanic peoples, the Franks would rise to a position of hegemony over Europe, the Frankish Empire reaching its peak under Charlemagne around 800. This empire was later divided into several parts; Western France will develop into the Kingdom of France, and Eastern France will become the Holy Roman Empire, the forerunner of modern Germany. and Italy. The British Isles have had several large-scale migrations.
The Byzantine Empire is the eastern part of the Roman Empire with its capital Constantinople, which lasted for the next 1000 years as the most dominant empire in Southeastern Europe. The powerful and long-lived Bulgarian empire. Both empires have been major powers in this part of Europe for centuries, creating important cultural, political, linguistic and religious legacies from the Middle Ages to the present day.
The Viking Age, a period of migration of the Scandinavian peoples, occurred from the end of the 8th century to the middle of the 11th century. The Normans, descendants of the Vikings who settled in northern France, have had a significant impact on many parts of Europe, from the Norman conquest of England to Sicily. Rus founded Kievan Rus, which turned into Rus. After AD 1000, the Crusades were a series of religiously motivated military expeditions designed to bring the Levant back to Christian rule. The Crusaders opened trade routes that allowed the trading republics of Genoa and Venice to become major economic powers. The Reconquista, a related movement, worked to recapture Iberia for Christendom.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, based on coal, steam and textile factories. Political changes in continental Europe were triggered by the French Revolution under the motto liberté, égalité, fraternité. Napoleon Bonaparte took control, carried out many reforms in France and transformed Western Europe. Its rise stimulated both nationalism and reaction, and it was defeated in 1814–15 when the old royal conservatives returned to power.
The period between 1815 and 1871 was marked by revolutionary attempts in many countries of Europe (except Great Britain). However, they all failed. As industrial workers grew in Europe, the activities of socialism and trade unions developed. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Russia in 1861. Greece and other Balkan peoples began the long, slow path to independence from the Ottoman Empire beginning in the 1820s. Italy was united at the Risorgimento in 1860. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, Otto von Bismarck united the German states into an empire that was politically and militarily dominant until 1914. Most of Europe fought for imperial colonies in Africa and Asia during the era of the Empire. Great Britain and France are great empires, and diplomats made sure that there were no major wars in Europe, except for the Crimean War of the 1850s.
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 was accelerated by the rise of nationalism in Southeast Europe, when the Great Powers took sides. The October Revolution of 1917 led to the fact that the Russian Empire became the world's first communist, Soviet Union. The Allies, Global Wars, France and the United States, defeated the Central Powers, defended by the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, in 1918. During the Paris Peace Conference, the Big Four imposed their terms in a number of treaties, especially the Treaty of Versailles. The human and material destruction caused by the war was unprecedented.
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Germany lost its overseas empire and several provinces, was forced to pay large reparations and was humiliated by the victors. They, in turn, had large US debts. The 1920s flourished until 1929, when the Great Depression erupted, which led to the collapse of democracy in many European states. The Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, rearmed Germany and, together with Italy, Mussolini sought to establish itself on the continent. Other peoples, who were not enthusiastic about fascism, sought to avoid conflicts. They set the boundaries of appeasement that Hitler ignored. The Second World War began. The war ended with the defeat of the Axis powers, but the threat of new conflicts was recognized even before the end of the war. Many in the United States were suspicious of how the USSR would view the peace of American troops in Europe. Eastern Front Western Front The meetings of the leaders of Yalta were unsuccessful. In the last months of the war, there was a race to the finish line. In the territories seized from the Nazis by the troops of the USSR, it turned out that they exchanged Hitler for Stalin. The USSR did not leave these territories for forty years. The USSR argued that they needed buffer states between them and the nascent NATO.
In the West, the term Iron Curtain entered the language. The United States embarked on the Marshall Plan from 1948 to 1951 and NATO from 1949, and rebuilt an industrial economy that had all flourished by the 1950s. France and West Germany took the lead in forming the European Economic Community, which eventually became the European Union (EU). Secularization led to the weakening of Protestant and Catholic churches in much of Europe, except in places where they were symbols of anti-government resistance, such as in Poland. The 1989 revolutions ended both Soviet hegemony and communism in Eastern Europe. Germany integrated, Europe expanded, and NATO and the EU expanded eastward. The EU has come under growing pressure from the post-2008 global recession.
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