In the 10th century in France, a new socio-economic force grows - cities *. Already from the 12th century they began to have a very strong impact on the life of the village; the fate of her and the city is closely intertwined.
In written sources, information about the growth of cities appears from the end of the 10th century, but archaeological data indicate that already at the beginning of the century, the expansion of the areas occupied by urban-type settlements began. This primarily affected the old cities.
In chapter 1 [see. reference to the entire book at the end of this text] it has already been said that the Gallo-Roman era left a legacy, especially in the south, many cities. In the early Middle Ages, they decayed, their territories shrank, the population greatly thinned out and was mainly engaged in agriculture. However, some of the crafts survived, exchange and money did not disappear completely, and in general the cities did not turn into villages, that is, they did not lose their former appearance.
In the X-XI centuries. revived the vast majority of old cities, which included the largest: Paris, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Lyon, Marseille, Nimes, Poitiers, Rouen, etc. At the same time, new urban settlements appeared in the south, for example Montpellier. Cities arose and grew most intensively in the 12th-13th centuries. At that time, many villages and villages, including those that appeared as a result of clearing, gradually developed into small and small towns, some of which later grew into large centers. In the XIII century. France was already covered with a dense network of cities - large, medium and small. All of them exist to this day, and until the XX century. only a few new ones have emerged.
The coincidence in time (10th century) of the beginning of two important processes was far from accidental: a new stage in the development of agriculture and the growth of cities, that is, the separation of handicrafts from agriculture. This meant that the productive forces in France, moreover, almost throughout its territory, reached such a level that they gave a strong impetus to the simultaneous rise of both branches of the economy, which continued in the XI-XIII centuries. to develop continuously without encountering significant obstacles on its way.
If you do not take into account the former Roman centers, then the first stage of the life of French medieval cities fell on the X-XI centuries. It can be defined as the period of the formation of commercial and industrial centers, which were under the rule of feudal lords, secular or spiritual. From the end of the XI century. the second stage began, which lasted for about a century: the cities won for themselves one or another degree of freedom and in the north entered into a political alliance with the royal power. During the XII-XIII centuries. they flourished and became an important economic force in the country, gaining significant political weight by the end of this third stage as well. France, as well as other countries, is characterized by a very large variety of rates and forms of urban development. Although this diversity is far from being fully understood, some of its features can be noted, which are characteristic of both old and new cities.
One of these features is the relatively rapid destruction of the system of feudal land holdings that existed in the urban area with their land and personal obligations. Initially, this system firmly tied the city to the seigneur, and therefore the trade and craft centers (wherever they appeared - in new places or within the old cities) to a certain extent repeated the structure of the feudal estate. The basis of this structure was that the land in the city, as well as in the village, belonged to the lord, sometimes to several. The urban population also continued to engage in agriculture -the townspeople kept livestock, cultivated vegetable gardens, vineyards, even arable land (however, arable land disappeared relatively quickly). The seigneur viewed the townspeople as rural artisans who had moved out of the villages and charged them with rent and levies of a land and personal nature. Only merchants, wandering or semi-settled, were free from this general dependence, although they paid various kinds of duties.
A significant part of the city territory was occupied by the castle or "courtyard" of the feudal lord - a fortified house, a garden, a vegetable garden, household and public buildings. The lord had a permanent residence in the city and kept with him a large number of vassals, knights and servants. A considerable part of the land in the city was given to them by the knights in possession, the rest belonged to church institutions. Therefore, a craftsman who moved to the city could not settle there on "no man's" land and had to take a plot from a lord, knight or church and pay for it, as well as for the house built on it, feudal rent (qualification). The city market was located on the land of the lord who received market duties. He and his servants performed judgment and reprisals in the city.
The senior was obliged to protect the city from external enemies, and in the X century. this was not an easy task. The raids of the Normans, Hungarians and Arabs devastated the country, and only the cities could resist and resist. Only they were reliable shelters, and the rural population of the district flocked to them. But in the XI century. external danger almost disappeared and this kind of socially useful activity of the feudal lords was significantly reduced. Then the contradictions between the townspeople and the lords came to the fore.
They were most clearly manifested in the economically developed cities of the advanced regions of France - in the north and on the Mediterranean coast. Crafts and trade reached there in the XI century. significant prosperity, the urban population grew rapidly, market ties with rural districts were strengthened. Cloth-making began to play an especially important role. It developed most rapidly and widely in areas of intensive sheep breeding; the cities located there began to supply many areas with cloth. The wider market provided the textile industry with a scale that was then inaccessible to other crafts. Wealthy cloth merchants, together with some other craftsmen and merchants (jewelers, butchers, wholesale grain traders, wine merchants) formed a close-knit and influential group that spoke on behalf of the city. She enjoyed the support of the rest of the townspeople, because economic inequality, already quite noticeable at that time, receded into the background for now. The main task was to fight with seniors; it united the townspeople and set a common goal for them.
The lords, who ruled the rapidly wealthy cities, viewed them as their full property and as a source of increasing income. They arbitrarily raised qualifications, market duties, court fines and other extortions, harassed citizens in court, kept their activities under control, and did not stop before acts of violence. Before the extortion of the lord and his servants, the townspeople were defenseless. Moreover, the seigneur's greed made all their work meaningless - savings and earnings went to the seigneur's treasury, like into a bottomless barrel.
The resistance of the townspeople first took the form of monetary transactions with the lords. In return for a large sum paid at once, the lord made a promise not to overstep certain limits in taxation. But he did not consider the oath given at the same time to be inviolable and after a certain period of time he accepted the old one. Then the townspeople changed their tactics. They began to form secret alliances (such a union was called a commune, communio, its members were bound by an oath), the purpose of which was to prepare for an armed struggle. Alliances have proven to be very effective.
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At the end of the XI - the beginning of the XII century. in many cities of northern France a wave of bloody uprisings, the so-called "communal revolutions", swept through. They brought the townspeople a victory over the lords. At the same time, almost every city (Cambrai, Saint-Quentin, Arras, Amiens, Saint-Riquier, Corby, Noyon, Lan, Soissons, Beauvais, Senlis, Reims, etc.) experienced some special ups and downs in its struggle (sometimes the victory went only after several uprisings), and its results were not quite the same. Nevertheless, the goal was achieved - many cities became free communes. Their basic rights were recorded in the "charter of liberties" given by the lords and approved by the king. Subsequently, these rights were further expanded and were recorded in the codes of city law. The main privileges were as follows.
All types of personal dependence were eliminated on the urban territory, for "the city air makes free." This legal provision also extended to aliens; it was enough for a serf to live in the city for a year and one day, engaging in some kind of craft, to become free, and then the claims of his former lord were deprived of force.
Destruction of land ties with the lord was also extremely important. The plots dependent on him (or on his knights) passed into the possession of the city and townspeople, and the census for land and houses turned into a tax that went to the city treasury. This order extended to a certain area around
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cities; subsequently, suburbs grew on it. However, the landownership rights of the church both in the city and in the surrounding area were almost completely preserved.
In some cases, the townspeople even managed to simply expel the seigneur with his knights and servants from the city. When he returned, they set him strictly certain conditions.
All power in the city passed into the hands of an elected city council, whose members were called Eshevens; they were headed by the mayor. The council was in charge of legal proceedings, finances, administration, city militia and conducted relations with the king, the former lord of the city and other cities. Since the cities were supposed to continue to defend their freedom (the lords more than once tried to regain their former power with the help of the feudal lords of neighboring districts), they retained the organization of the former union (communio), extending it to the entire combat-ready population, which was armed and trained in military affairs.
Strong walls with towers were erected around the city-communes, and deep ditches were dug. The cities turned into huge fortresses for those times, and not every feudal army could take them. The lord's city castle was turned into an inner fortress, which served as a city hall and a prison. The city-communes had an impressive military and political power.
The liberation of cities was of great importance for France (as well as for other European countries where it took place). Political independence gave them the opportunity for unimpeded economic development, which was especially important during the 11th-12th centuries, when the system of commodity-money relations was just taking shape. Free cities threw off the yoke of direct feudal exploitation (in the future, their participation in taxation had a different character - the money went to the state and was spent mainly for the purpose of strengthening the national state). In the northern regions, the communes were numerous and formed a network of free cities, which had a strong impact on the economy of the village and on the evolution of the feudal system. Their military and political strength made them real and important allies of the royal power in its policy of overcoming feudal fragmentation. The cities have blossomed their own socially colored culture, which played a major role in the formation of the national culture. The free cities embodied the progress of the entire country. Characteristic is the hatred they aroused in the feudal class. From this time, a pronounced socio-political discord between the cities and feudal lords of Northern France began.
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It is characteristic that the strong communal movement of the XII century. also affected some rural areas. Sometimes the peasants of the villages located around the communes were able to form with their help something like free confederations of villages. But these rural communes were unable to preserve their freedom at that time. They could not resist the onslaught of the feudal lords and were returned to their previous state.
On the territory of the royal domain (in the 12th century it did not yet include the whole of Northern France), almost all cities, including Paris and Orleans, did not become communes: the king was stronger than any city lord. The main cities of the feudal principalities were in the same position. In addition, Paris has long enjoyed many rights of self-government. Therefore, in the royal domain and in the central regions of the country, the so-called "cities of the bourgeoisie" gained predominance. In them, the "bourgeois" (that is, all full-fledged citizens) enjoyed property rights and personal freedom, and the council they elected performed many judicial and administrative functions. But along with it, there were royal (in the principalities - ducal or county) judicial and administrative institutions, and the city was subordinated to the king.
In the south, cities developed even earlier than in the north. Rapid flourishing in the XII century. Toulouse, Bordeaux, Albi, Montpellier, Narbonne, Nimes, Carcassonne, Marseille, etc. was associated with the Crusades. The southern cities established close trade relations with the Levant, where they had their trading posts; they also played the role of intermediaries in the trade of the East with the Nordic countries. In many cities, the production of expensive, brightly colored cloth flourished, which was in great demand in all the markets of the Levant and Europe.
The rapid economic growth of the southern cities and the self-government preserved in them since Roman times helped them to acquire freedom sooner. Most of the time they bought it from seniors and soon became independent wealthy city-republics, much like the Italian ones. Power in the city belonged to "consuls", who were elected by merchants, artisans and knights (many of the knights were engaged in trade). Along with the consulate, there was a "Grand Council", which included all full-fledged citizens *.
The cities of Burgundy began to be liberated somewhat later - from the middle of the 12th century, sometimes as a result of uprisings, sometimes through monetary transactions. The largest number of communal charters was received in the 13th century.
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